Martyn Jones

When it comes to running, it turns out, more isn’t necessarily always better, as extreme distances could be prematurely aging your body.

Researchers at the University of Colorado Anschutz analyzed blood samples from 23 athletes immediately before and after they completed a 24-mile (40km) marathon or a grueling 108-mile (174km) ultra-marathon.

Before the races, participants had healthy red blood cells — vital for delivering oxygen to cells — that were flexible and easily passed through tiny blood vessels. 

But after they crossed the finish line, these cells were more rigid, impairing circulation, and showed signs of inflammation and physical stress.

Overall, those who ran the ultramarathon had significantly more damage to their red blood cells.

Researchers said the deterioration of the cells closely matched what they would expect to record in an aging body, where the cells also become more rigid and less able to carry oxygen.

Dr Angelo D’Alessandro, a biologist and senior author of the study, said: ‘Red blood cells are remarkably resilient, but they are also exquisitely sensitive to mechanical and oxidative stress.

‘This study shows that extreme endurance exercise pushes red blood cells toward accelerated aging through mechanisms that mirror what we observe during blood storage.’

Researchers at the University of Colorado Anschutz analyzed the blood samples from 23 runners before and after they completed a marathon or an ultramarathon (stock photo)

Researchers found that the runners suffered damage to their red blood cells that mirrored changes normally seen with aging (stock image)

He continued: ‘Understanding these shared pathways gives us a unique opportunity to learn how to better protect blood cell function both in athletes and in transfusion medicine.’

Researchers said that the damage to the cells recorded during running was likely the result of inflammation and running-induced variations in fluid pressure as the cells circulated through the body.

They added that their results did not suggest that people should stop running altogether, but that they showed running these marathons led to red blood cell damage.

Participants only had their blood tested immediately after the race, meaning it was not clear whether the damage to the cells was permanent. 

In the study, published in the journal Blood Red Cells and Iron, the team tested thousands of biomarkers in the blood.

Overall, 11 participants completed the Martigny-Combe a Chamonix, a 25-mile route from Switzerland to France, run by about 1,000 athletes every August.

Another 12 completed the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc, a 108-mile route into France, Italy and Switzerland, considered one of the most ‘mythical and prestigious’ running races in the world. It takes place in August and is attended by about 10,000 runners yearly.

For comparison, both the New York City and London marathons are 26.2 miles (42km) long.

Shown above are runners in the 2024 New York City marathon, which is 26.2 miles (42km) long

Runners are shown above in the 2024 New York City marathon crossing the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge

Participants in the study were 36 years old on average. Fourteen were men and nine were women. It was not clear exactly how much blood was extracted.

In the analysis of their blood, researchers tested thousands of biomarkers to track changes that occurred during the endurance race.

Dr Travis Nemkov, a biochemist who led the research, told Runners World: ‘At some point between marathon and ultramarathon distances, the damage really starts to take hold.

‘We’ve observed this damage happening, but we don’t know how long it takes for the body to repair that damage, if that damage has a long-term impact and whether that impact is good or bad.’

Based on their results, they warned that as the length of a run increases, athletes can expect to lose more blood cells and accumulate more damage to those remaining in circulation.

In aging, red blood cells accumulate damage, making them more rigid and leading to a decline.

This means they carry less oxygen and nutrients to tissue, reducing oxygenation and raising inflammation levels and cardiovascular stress, as the heart works harder to supply the body with the same nutrients.

Older red blood cells can also clump together, making the blood more viscous and hindering blood flow, raising the risk of a stroke or heart attack.

Studies suggest that this starts in a person’s 50s, before becoming more pronounced in their 60s.

Doctors urge people to exercise, and suggest running as a great way to boost the cardiovascular system and improve overall health and fitness.

But some physicians also raise concerns over ultra-marathon events, warning that completing these may raise the risk of complications such as heart attacks. Emerging research has also previously linked them to a higher risk of colon cancer.

An estimated 50 million people participate in jogging or running in the US every year, while 130,000 complete ultra-marathons every year.

As health authorities increasingly warn against drinking, a new study has revealed which alcoholic beverages most raise the risk of death from chronic diseases.

After consuming alcohol, the body breaks it down into the toxic byproduct acetaldehyde, which attacks DNA and tissues, leading to inflammation, immune suppression and hormonal imbalances.

It’s been classified a probable carcinogen in humans, meaning it could increase the risk of several forms of cancer. 

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans stress to ‘consume less alcohol for better overall health,’ while the World Health Organization‘s belief is that no amount of alcohol is ‘safe.’

A new study of over 340,000 British adults echoed those sentiments, finding less consumption overall was associated with improved health outcomes, especially for those with heart disease or other chronic conditions.

But the research team also found that based on participant questionnaires and reported alcohol intake, the risks of dying from cancer and heart disease were greater for those drinking even low to moderate amounts of certain drinks than others.

Spirits, beer and cider were associated with significantly greater risks of death overall compared to the same level of wine consumption.

Moderate wine drinkers – one to three glasses a day – were significantly less likely to die of heart disease compared to those who never or occasionally drink. However, the risk of death was nine percent higher for spirits, beer and cider drinkers, even those with a low intake – less than one to 1.5 drinks.

A new study has suggested beer, spirits and cider are more associated with cancer and heart disease than wine (stock image)

‘Our findings help clarify previously mixed evidence on low to moderate alcohol consumption,’ Dr Zhangling Chen, senior study author and professor at the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University in China, said. 

‘These findings can help refine guidance, emphasizing that the health risks of alcohol depend not only on the amount of alcohol consumed, but also on the type of beverage.

‘Even low to moderate intake of spirits, beer or cider is linked to higher mortality, while low to moderate intake of wine may carry lower risk.’

While the exact mechanisms are unclear, experts behind the study believe wine may be more protective against chronic disease because certain types, especially red wine, contain polyphenols and antioxidants, compounds that reduce inflammation related to heart disease. 

The team also noted wine is more likely to be consumed with higher quality, healthy meals, such as those that align with the Mediterranean diet, while spirits, beer and cider usually are paired with less healthy, fried foods. 

‘Taken together, these factors suggest that the type of alcohol, how it is consumed and the associated lifestyle behaviors all contribute to the observed differences in mortality risk,’ Chen said. 

The full analysis is due to be presented on March 28 at the American College of Cardiology (ACC) Annual Scientific Session & Expo in New Orleans.

The researchers noted wine has antioxidants and is usually consumed alongside healthier foods than beer, spirits or cider, which could make it healthier (stock image)

The researchers analyzed alcohol consumption habits and mortality outcomes among 340,924 people who participated in the UK Biobank study between 2006 and 2022. 

Each participant completed a dietary questionnaire when they enrolled in the study and were put into one of four groups based on their intake, which was measured by grams of pure alcohol per week.

For reference, a 12-ounce can of beer, a five-ounce glass of wine and 1.5-ounce shot of spirits each contain about 14g of pure alcohol. 

People consuming less than 20g (about 1.5 standard drinks) per week were classified as never or occasional drinkers. 

Men who drank between 20g per week and 20g per day, along with women consuming between 20g per week and 10g per day, had low alcohol consumption.

Meanwhile, consuming 20g to 40g (about 1.5 to three standard drinks) for men and 10g to 20g for women per day was considered moderate. Daily consumption of more than 40g (about three drinks) for men and 20g (about 1.5 drinks) for women was deemed high. 

Health outcomes were tracked for 13 years on average. 

The team found that compared to never or occasional drinkers, those with high alcohol consumption were 24 percent more likely to die of any cause, 36 percent more likely to die of cancer and 14 percent more likely to die of heart disease. 

The above shows the recommendations for alcohol consumption outlined in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans

But when looking at low and moderate consumption, wine set itself apart as the potentially healthier choice. 

The researchers found moderate wine drinkers were at a 21 percent lower risk of dying from heart disease compared to those who never or occasionally drank. 

However, those who drank low amounts of spirits, beer or cider had a nine percent higher risk of death from heart disease than those who never drank or only did so occasionally. 

The data was adjusted to account for socioeconomic status, lifestyle factors and family history of conditions such as diabetes, heart disease and cancer.  

‘These results come from the general population, and in certain high-risk groups, such as people with chronic diseases or cardiovascular conditions, the risks could be even higher,’ Chen said. 

In the US, previous recommendations were one drink or less per day for women and two drinks per day or less for men. However, the new 2025-2030 dietary guidelines removed the specific daily limits in favor of general moderation, advising adults to ‘consume less alcohol for better overall health.’

Bird flu has jumped to two new species of marine mammals in California, igniting fears that the virus is mutating and could spread among humans.

Officials in San Mateo County, near San Francisco, have confirmed infections in a California sea lion and a southern sea otter, marking the first time ever that the virus has been detected in these species in the state.

No further details were revealed on the condition of the animals, but officials warned the cases were likely linked to an outbreak in the county’s elephant seal colony, where at least 30 seals have been infected.

Health officials have also detected bird flu in Marin County, on the other side of the Bay Area, where a common murre, a penguin-like sea bird, has also tested positive.

Officials in the state said the risk to the public remains ‘very low’.

As a precaution, people have been urged to avoid contact with stranded, sick or dead marine mammals and birds in order to avoid infection.

Experts are alarmed every time the virus spreads to new species because it raises the risk that it could mutate and become able to easily infect and spread form person-to-person.

Although concerning, the two new species infected are not thought to be ‘intermediate hosts’, or animals from which the virus could easily jump to humans. 

Officials in California are raising the alarm over bird flu (Pictured above: USDA workers disinfect a work crew at a turkey farm in Minnesota, 2015. File photo)

The infections in the two new species, reported on Friday last week, were detected in Año Nuevo State Park.

The park hosts a colony of 10,000 elephant seals, one of the largest breeding colonies in the US, and is a major destination for people looking to view the seals via guided walks.

It was not clear how the animals became infected, but officials said contact with the feces or carcasses of infected seals, birds or other infected animals raises the risk of the virus jumping to a new species.

The infection in the common murre was reported on Wednesday in a bird at Kehoe Beach on the Point Reyes National Seashore, an area famous for dramatic surf and sand dunes that attracts about 2 million visitors every year.

Officials had tested three common murres and found that one tested positive for the virus.

The testing was ordered after officials noted a surge in the number of dead common murres in the area.

Officials at the National Park Service, which conducted the testing and raised the alarm over the infections, said: ‘The National Park Service reminds visitors that they should never approach or handle wildlife. 

‘Keep pets on a leash in areas where pets are allowed and away from sick or dead wildlife to reduce the risk of infection and prevent further stress or injury to the wildlife.

Officials are concerned that bird flu could gain a mutation, making it better able to infect humans (stock image)

The above is a file photo that shows a health worker testing a dead seal in Peru in 2023

‘If you encounter sick or dead wildlife, maintain a safe distance and please report it to a visitor center, park staff or by phone or email.’

The warning came after more than 1,100 geese were found floating lifeless in waters across New Jersey this month, sparking concerns over a bird flu outbreak. 

To date, more than 60 marine mammal species have been infected by bird flu since a major outbreak began in late 2020.

The virus has been ripping through the animal kingdom after it mutated to become more infectious and more likely to cause severe disease.

It has now infected a wide variety of animals besides birds, including cats, dogs, foxes, bears, skunks and even dolphins.

Researchers are closely tracking the infections and remain concerned that they could result in a mutation that allows the virus to spread to humans.

To date, 71 people in the US have been infected with bird flu and two people have died from the disease – but there has been no evidence of human-to-human transmission.

All but one case in people can be traced back to exposure to infected animals.  

The vast majority of patients had direct contact either with dead birds or other infected animals, including cows. 

In early 2024, the virus started to spread in cows and, to date, has infected 1,088 herds across the US.

In January last year, an individual in Louisiana became the first American to die from bird flu. The individual was reported to be over 65 years old, had underlying medical conditions and had been in contact with sick birds in a backyard flock.

In November, the second death was reported in a resident from Washington state. The individual was also reported to be an older adult with underlying conditions who suffered from a high fever, confusion and severe difficulty breathing.

The CDC says that the current risk bird flu poses to the US public is low.

For millions of people, the appearance of cellulite is an ongoing frustration. 

You know it as the stubborn dimples and dents on your thighs and backside that seem impervious to diet, exercise, juice cleanses and the endless parade of creams promising a miracle.

But the solution might not come in a jar of caffeine-infused lotion or in that pricey retinol treatment that promised to tighten things up.

New research suggests that a daily oral supplement derived from the bark of a French maritime pine tree could smooth out cellulite more effectively than many topical treatments, with results visible in as little as three months.

A 90-day study found that a daily 150mg dose of French maritime pine bark extract (FMPBE) significantly reduced cellulite severity, thigh circumference and skin roughness while improving smoothness in women with moderate cellulite.

Researchers found that the secret lies in the extract’s unique composition. FMPBE, sold commercially under the name Pycnogenol, is rich in compounds called procyanidins, which are potent antioxidants with anti-inflammatory properties.

Research suggests the extract boosts circulation by protecting endothelial cells. That matters because poor microcirculation (sluggish blood flow) can lead to fluid retention and structural breakdown in skin, both linked to cellulite.

Dr Elie Levine, a New York City-based plastic surgeon, told the Daily Mail that these findings are promising for the millions of women who have tried futilely to beat cellulite with topical products.  

New research suggests that a daily supplement made from French maritime pine bark may reduce cellulite more effectively than many topical treatments, with visible results in as little as three months

‘It is ill-advised to expect topical products to substantially improve cellulite for any lasting period of time,’ he said. ‘In fact, topical products at best can create effects of swelling that may camouflage or hide cellulite, but they cannot directly address the source.’ 

Ultimately, topical products are not able to penetrate the fibrous bands beneath the skin that cause cellulite deeply enough to have any significant impact. 

‘Cellulite is one of those things people keep trying to treat from the surface, and it just doesn’t really work like that,’ integrative wellness expert Sydney Sajadi told the Daily Mail. ‘It’s deeper.

‘So the idea of something oral having an effect actually makes more sense than another cream.’ 

Pycnogenol, available over the counter at about $75 for 60 pills – around $1.25 per capsule – is said to work because it claims to support the skin’s structure from the inside. 

Previous research has pointed to its ability to boost hyaluronic acid and collagen. Hyaluronic acid is the molecule that acts like a sponge, holding water in the skin to maintain plumpness and elasticity.

It has been shown in multiple studies to improve endothelial function, or the health of the cells lining blood vessels, which is crucial for blood flow. 

Better circulation means better nutrient delivery to skin tissue and more efficient removal of fluid that can exacerbate dimpling.

Chronic low-grade inflammation can degrade collagen and weaken connective tissue over time. Pycnogenol has demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects in multiple studies.

The double-blind, placebo-controlled study, published in the journal Phytomedicine Plus, followed 60 women between the ages of 25 and 45 with moderate cellulite. It took place between November 2021 and February 2022.

Pycnogenol (the brand shown was not the one used by researchers) is available over the counter like any other dietary supplement. This means that the FDA does not regulate it for safety or efficacy 

All the women studied had moderate cellulite as determined using a scale that measures the number of depressed lesions, depth of depressions, appearance of skin surface alterations, skin flaccidity and overall cellulite grade.

Women were excluded if they were pregnant, nursing or had used any dermatological drugs, cosmetic products targeting cellulite or nutritional supplements in the weeks before the study.

Participants were randomly split into two groups of 30. 

The treatment group took 150mg of FMPBE daily – roughly the amount found in some commercially available supplements – in the form of one 50mg capsule in the morning and two 500mg capsules in the evening, with meals. 

The placebo group took identical-looking capsules containing only plant-derived maltodextrin, an inactive filler.

The 150mg daily dose was chosen based on previous research demonstrating its effectiveness in improving endothelial function and microcirculation.

The four images on the left are of two women who took a placebo on day zero and day 84. The images on the right show the difference that the pine bark extract made in two women from day zero to day 84

Researchers measured outcomes at the start of the study, and then again at four weeks, eight weeks and 12 weeks using the Hexsel Cellulite Severity Score graded by three independent experts. 

They measured thigh circumference via tape measure and skin roughness and smoothness using a device that analyzes skin structure.

After 90 days, the differences were significant. Women taking FMPBE saw a 13.6 percent reduction in cellulite severity, compared to negligible changes in the placebo group.

Dr Elie Levine, a New York City-based plastic surgeon, told the Daily Mail that, at best, topical creams create swelling that may temporarily camouflage cellulite, but they cannot directly address the source

Their upper thigh circumference shrank by an average of 2.07 centimeters, more than double the reduction seen in those taking the placebo. Skin roughness improved by 32 percent while skin smoothness increased by more than 11 percent.

No adverse effects were reported.

But before you rush out to snatch up a bottle, experts urge people to maintain realistic expectations. 

While systemic approaches make more sense, they still aren’t ‘transformative on their own,’ said Dr Rupert Critchley, a plastic surgeon who owns the London-based Viva Clinic. 

‘You’re looking at gradual, modest improvement over a few months.’ 

In addition to creams and pills, advances in technology have opened the door to more effective treatments for cellulite performed by a doctor. 

Levine swears by Aveli, a treatment that involves inserting a tiny hook under the skin to physically cut the fibrous bands that cause the look of cellulite, ‘and I can actually see the skin smooth out in real time.’

Depending on the patient, this may be done alone, combined with radiofrequency-assisted liposuction, or followed by microfat transfer to fill deeper depressions.

‘Just like so many other modalities,’ Levine said, ‘I find that a multifaceted approach benefits patients the most.’ 

For many scientists working in Parkinson’s research, the global rise in the number of people being diagnosed with the degenerative brain disease has become impossible to ignore. It is now the fastest-growing neurological disorder, with studies suggesting cases could double from six million to more than 12million by 2040.

In the UK there are 166,000 people living with the incurable disease – up from 120,000 in 2010, a rise of 38 per cent in 15 years. The real figure is likely to be higher because there is still a backlog of patients who were not diagnosed during Covid.

Largely a disease of ageing, it develops mainly in people over 60 when brain cells die and stop producing an essential chemical called dopamine, which controls movement. This triggers symptoms such as tremors and stiffness, alongside depression, sleep problems and difficulties with focus, memory and decision-making. A big part of this global rise – including in the UK – is because more people are living long enough to be diagnosed with it. But age is not the only driver.

Some experts in the US, who point to increases in diagnoses even in younger adults, describe the rise in Parkinson’s as a ‘man-made pandemic’, driven by exposure to industrial chemicals and pesticides. Other studies point to air pollution and the potential role of viruses – including flu, herpes and hepatitis C – in triggering processes in the brain that ultimately lead to the disease.

What causes any disease in an individual is extremely difficult to pinpoint, and Parkinson’s is no different. But these environmental factors are being closely studied to assess how much of an effect they might be having.

As Claire Bale, at Parkinson’s UK, says: ‘We think it is a combination of your genes with environmental factors, lifestyle and the process of ageing, and it’s hard to untangle. We don’t think our DNA is changing. So is there something external driving an increase? That might be true in some places.’

Professor Miratul Muqit, director of the UK Dementia Research Institute Parkinson’s Research Centre, adds: ‘I think it’s fair to say that, globally, there has been an increase in Parkinson’s cases which goes beyond an ageing population – but it’s not underpinned by a rigorous analysis. More people are being diagnosed, but no one has proven that the increase could be linked to factors outside of ageing.

Some experts in the US describe the rise in Parkinson’s as a ‘man-made pandemic’, driven by exposure to industrial chemicals and pesticides

There is also emerging research on the effect of air pollution on the brain. Traffic fumes and smoke from woodburners contain toxic particulates called PM2.5, which are so small they can be inhaled deep into the lungs

‘However, I’m receptive to the idea there are contributions from our exposure to the environment.’ One factor receiving significant attention in research is pesticides, particularly those used in agriculture.

Studies from the US show people most exposed to agricultural pesticides such as paraquat and rotenone are 2.5 times more at risk of developing Parkinson’s.

Laboratory studies on those used in the US indicate some can poison the ‘battery packs’ in brain cells, known as mitochondria. These then leach toxins that cause a protein called alpha-synuclein – a hallmark of Parkinson’s disease – to build up. This, in turn, triggers brain cells to die and stops the release of dopamine, causing the motor symptoms of the disease. While these chemicals continue to be used in the US, all have been banned in the UK for many years – in the case of rotenone and paraquat, for two decades.

But what isn’t clear, Prof Muqit says, is whether the ‘new generation’ of pesticides that replaced them in the UK have completely eliminated the Parkinson’s risk.

As Tilo Kunath, professor of regenerative neurobiology at the University of Edinburgh, points out: ‘Banning these pesticides hasn’t led to any decrease in Parkinson’s incidence – suggesting there could be others in use which are causing the same issues. It also takes decades between exposure and the disease emerging.’

Early signs Sarah blamed on stress

Sarah Frow was just 44 when she was diagnosed with early-onset Parkinson’s in 2021, following three years of niggling symptoms that she had put down to stress or exhaustion.

The mother of two, from Tenterden, Kent, first noticed a tremor in her left hand before two of her fingers began curling involuntarily into a claw-like position. Her arm and one leg became heavier and less responsive, while she noticed subtle changes to her balance and co-ordination.

She was diagnosed after seeking a private neurology consultation, when NHS tests, following a seizure, proved inconclusive.

‘The doctor said he thought it was Parkinson’s disease,’ says Sarah, now 49.

‘I remember thinking he must be wrong. I thought I was far too young. But then I was angry and upset. I kept thinking, “Why me?” ’

A lifelong keen runner and personal trainer, who now works as an exercise lead at the Parkinson’s Centre for Integrated Therapy at the University of Kent, Sarah has long wondered whether growing up in the countryside and running through fields and along rural footpaths might have triggered her disease by exposing her to agricultural pesticides.

She says: ‘That’s what I’ve put it down to. I’m also having genetic tests, as my father was adopted.’

She believes that regular running has helped stave off the disease and has allowed her to cut down her medication from three tablets a day to one.

Next month she will run the London Marathon to raise money for the charity Cure Parkinson’s, which is dedicated to finding a cure for the disease.

She adds: ‘Exercise is my medicine, and I want to keep it that way for as long as I can.’

Sponsor Sarah in her London Marathon on justgiving.com

While there has been no formal research on the subject in this country, Ms Bale points out that ‘there are more cases in farmers than you might expect’.

People who live near golf courses are also at risk because of the pesticides used to maintain the greens. One large US study last year found those living within one mile of a course had a 126 per cent higher risk of developing Parkinson’s compared with those living six miles away. However, the use of chemicals on golf courses is more tightly regulated here, and some courses, such as Minchinhampton Old Course in the Cotswolds, use no chemical pesticides or fertilisers.

Whatever the case, exposure to these chemicals is not the whole story, Prof Muqit points out.

‘Exposure isn’t enough – studies on pesticides in California suggest some people in families get Parkinson’s while others don’t,’ he says. ‘Why is that? We don’t know. But there’s likely to be an interaction with your genetics, your ability to deal with the chemicals – how your body absorbs them and metabolises them.’

Other chemicals associated with Parkinson’s are trichloroethylene (TCE) and perchloroethylene (PCE), which are commonly used in solvents, to degrease metals and in dry cleaning. Both are classified as cancer-­causing by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), and regular exposure to TCE was linked with a six-fold increase in Parkinson’s risk, according to a twin study from 2011.

The chemicals can persist in soil and groundwater for years, and research from 2023 found higher rates of Parkinson’s among veterans who had been housed at Camp Lejeune, a US Marine Corps base in North Carolina which was contaminated by TCE and PCE during the 1970s.

Using TCE for dry cleaning stopped in the UK in the 1950s, while PCE use is tightly controlled and subject to local council permits. Reassuringly, no research yet suggests a ‘hotspot’ of Parkinson’s among those who work in the industry. Nor is anyone suggesting that consumers who use dry cleaning are at risk.

Emerging research has focused on whether common viruses can trigger the neurological changes seen in Parkinson’s, although it is ‘too early’ to say if Covid increases the risk

There is also emerging research on the effect of air pollution on the brain. Traffic fumes and smoke from woodburners contain toxic particulates called PM2.5, which are so small they can be inhaled deep into the lungs. This has long been linked with cardiovascular disease and dementia, but studies also found people living in densely populated areas or near main roads have a higher risk of Parkinson’s compared with those living in postcodes with cleaner air.

One analysis last year of more than 56 million US patient records by researchers from Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine found that every increase in PM2.5 concentration resulted in a 17 per cent higher risk of Parkinson’s disease dementia – a later stage of Parkinson’s that affects up to 80 per cent of people with the disease.

Similar emerging research has focused on whether common viruses can trigger the neurological changes seen in Parkinson’s.

Viruses can drive neurological diseases – Epstein–Barr virus, which causes glandular fever, can trigger multiple sclerosis, and varicella zoster virus, which causes chickenpox and shingles, is linked to dementia. But while some evidence links Parkinson’s with viruses, none is a ‘smoking gun’, says Prof Muqit.

After the 1918 global influenza pandemic, there was a surge in Parkinson-like symptoms. Studies have since indicated a slightly increased risk of Parkinson’s following infections such as flu and hepatitis C.

When it comes to Covid, however, it is ‘too early’ to say if it increases the risk, experts agree.

One 2021 study by Oxford academics found 0.11 per cent of a cohort of 236,000 patients diagnosed with Covid went on to develop ‘parkinsonism’ – symptoms including tremors, muscle stiffness and balance problems, but not necessarily Parkinson’s disease – within six months. This rose to 0.26 per cent among those treated in intensive care. While it is unclear how much Parkinson’s can be prevented, research suggests that some factors may be protective.

One – although it is, for obvious reasons, not recommended – is smoking. A far healthier option is drinking coffee – three to five cups a day may reduce Parkinson’s risk by around 30 per cent.

But the most convincing evidence is around the protective effects of exercise. ‘It increases the health of neurons and improves the clearance of protein clumps,’ says Prof Kunath.

The evidence suggests meeting NHS guidelines of 150 minutes of activity each week that raises the heart rate may reduce the risk by 20 to 30 per cent. While diet is not specifically linked to Parkinson’s, experts say eating a Mediterranean­-style diet based on lean meats, fresh fruit, veg and nuts can only be beneficial. Prof Muqit adds: ‘If you have high blood pressure, high cholesterol or type 2 diabetes, that can increase your risk of dementia and how quickly you progress. It’s probably true for Parkinson’s – it just hasn’t been proven yet.’

Ultimately, it is up to you to try to lower your risk, regardless of your environment. ‘Many are exposed to these risk factors but only a small percentage of them will get Parkinson’s,’ says Prof Kunath. ‘No single one of these things definitively causes it. However, with the right lifestyle, you can reduce your risk.’

How Michael J Fox fought back

When Michael J. Fox was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease in 1991, the Hollywood actor – then just 29 – was told that his life expectancy was somewhere between ten and 20 years.

More than three decades later, the Back To The Future star is alive and well – though markedly hampered by his condition. How did he do it?

Fox, now 64, says the first sign of the disease was a twitch in his little finger. Soon after, a neurologist diagnosed him with early-onset Parkinson’s.

Since then, Fox has taken a daily drug called levodopa. It replaces the brain chemical dopamine, which Parkinson’s patients do not produce in large enough quantities, leading to movement issues. While it cannot halt Parkinson’s, it can reduce some of the tremors and stiffness.

In 1998, Fox underwent a procedure called a thalamotomy to treat severe tremors. The surgery involves making a small cut in the area of the brain that controls movement. However, his tremors returned soon afterwards.

Fox, who set up the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research, has previously said he believes that scientists will find a cure for the disease in the next decade.

However, speaking in 2024, he said he does not believe he will be alive to see it.

Michael J. Fox takes a daily drug called levodopa, which replaces the brain chemical dopamine and can reduce some of the tremors and stiffness